European Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine

Chronic or non‑healing ulcers are wounds that fail to re‑establish anatomical and functional integrity through a normal, timely repair process and are characterized by prolonged inflammation, stalled granulation, and poor epithelialization that often require multidisciplinary care [1]. Clinically these lesions are heterogeneous in size, depth, duration and etiology, and are associated with high treatment costs and complex management needs [1].

• Key clinical features include prolonged duration (often defined as poor response after weeks of therapy), recurrent tissue breakdown, and a wound microenvironment dominated by proteases and inflammatory mediators [1].
• Chronic ulcers frequently involve multiple comorbidities (e.g., diabetes, vascular disease, immobility) that compound impaired healing and resource use [1].

Causes and risk factors:

Non‑healing ulcers arise from diverse primary causes (venous disease, arterial insufficiency, neuropathy, metabolic disorders, and infection) and are amplified by systemic and behavioral risks that impede normal repair processes [2], [3]. In diabetic foot ulcers, hyperglycemia, neuropathy, peripheral arterial disease and impaired immunity are central contributors, while venous leg ulcers commonly reflect venous hypertension, reflux and chronic inflammation [3], [2].

• Major risk factors reported across reviews include advanced age, obesity, smoking, poor glycaemic control, and vascular insufficiency [3], [2].
• Chronic local processes such as sustained high protease activity, oxidative stress, and iron deposition are repeatedly implicated in delayed healing in venous ulcers [2].

Classification

Chronic ulcers are categorized by predominant underlying causes, each with distinct pathophysiology: Venous ulcers derive from ambulatory venous hypertension due to chronic venous insufficiency. Their impaired microcirculation, fibrin deposition, and inflammatory cascade delay healing. Arterial ulcer result from inadequate arterial blood supply, often in peripheral arterial disease. These ulcers are typified by deep, “punched‑out” lesions and occur in hypoperfused areas, delaying normal healing. Diabetic foot ulcer emerge from a confluence of sensory neuropathy, foot deformities, autonomic dysfunction, and ischemia. Up to one-quarter of individuals with diabetes develop such ulcers, which are a leading cause of non‑traumatic limb amputation.Pressure (decubitus) ulcers occur due to prolonged pressure over bony prominences in immobile patients, leading to tissue ischemia and breakdown. Despite differing etiologies, chronic ulcers share a unifying pathophysiology: stalled healing, persistent inflammation, protease imbalance, senescent cells, and microbial biofilms.

Wound healing phases and failure mechanisms:

Normal repair follows sequential hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation (granulation, angiogenesis, matrix deposition) and remodeling; chronic ulcers are commonly “stuck” in the inflammatory or dysfunctional proliferative phase [2],[14]. Failure to progress is linked to sustained protease imbalance, dysfunctional fibroblasts, senescent cells, and a microenvironment hostile to re‑epithelialization [2], [5], [6]. Clinical studies commonly stratify chronic wounds by size, duration and etiology to guide therapy and reporting, but standardized, universally adopted classification systems are not consistently described in the supplied corpus [4] Cellular dysfunction: ulcer‑derived fibroblasts show altered phenotypes reduced proliferation that blunt matrix synthesis and wound contraction [6]. Microenvironment biomarkers correlate with healing trajectory and can change after targeted interventions, indicating mechanistic targets for therapy [12].

Amniotic membrane therapy and evidence:

Amniotic and chorionic membranes are collagen‑rich extracellular matrices that retain endogenous growth factors, cytokines and bioactive molecules; they exert anti‑inflammatory, anti‑protease and pro‑regenerative effects that can shift chronic wounds toward epithelialization [7], [8], [5].

Objectives:

• To evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of freshly collected human amniotic membrane (HAM) in promoting healing of chronic non-healing ulcers, with specific focus on wound closure time and reduction in ulcer size.
• To assess histopathological changes in the ulcer tissue post-HAM application, including epithelial regeneration, inflammatory response, neovascularization, and evidence of scarless tissue remodeling.
• To quantify changes in angiogenic growth factors (e.g., VEGF, bFGF, PDGF) and correlate these with improvements in vascularity and tissue perfusion in the ulcer bed.

To assess the immunological safety and cost-effectiveness of using freshly collected HAM by monitoring for signs of graft rejection, inflammatory response, and comparing overall treatment costs with standard care.

The study aimed to evaluate the efficacy level of vascularity of freshly collected human amniotic membrane (HAM)  as a biological dressing in the management of chronic non-healing ulcers in human patients in tertiary care hospital.A total of 30 patients (both males and females), aged between 18 and 70 years, diagnosed with chronic non-healing ulcers, were included. The patients were randomly allocated into two groups:Study Group (n = 15): Received HAM as a biological dressing.Control Group (n = 15):Received standard moist wound dressing with conventional care.Randomization was done using a computer-generated table, and patients were followed for a period of 8 weeks or until complete healing. Video and written informed consent was obtained from all participants and donor mothers.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Male and female patients aged 18–70 years.
• Presence of a chronic non-healing ulcer (duration >6 weeks) of non-malignant etiology (e.g., diabetic foot ulcers, venous ulcers, pressure ulcers, traumatic ulcers).
• Ulcers showing no signs of healing despite standard care.
• All patients will be screened for HIV-1, 2, Hepatitis-B, C, VDRL, Toxoplasmosis, Herpes infection, renal and lipid profile, thyroid profile, hepatic profile, CBC, Blood sugar and autoimmune disorders
• Ability and willingness to comply with study procedures.

Exclusion Criteria:

• Malignant ulcers or suspected malignancy.
• Patients on long-term corticosteroids or immunosuppressants.
• Comatose patients, Tuberculosis, HIV and any other immune compromised patients.
• Local or systemic infection at the time of enrollment. Patients during the course of study who will be shifted to oral antibiotics to treat the infection or topical anti-microbial application.
• Pregnant or lactating women.
• Known allergy to amniotic membrane or biological products.

Collection and Preparation of Human Amniotic Membrane (HAM):

Human amniotic membranes were collected from healthy seronegative donor mothers undergoing elective cesarean section after obtaining informed written consent. Donors were screened for transmissible diseases including HIV, Hepatitis B and C, syphilis and TORCH infections.

Under strict sterile conditions, the amniotic membrane was separated from the placenta if needed, washed thoroughly with sterile amniotic fluid and normal saline to remove any clots or debris. The membrane was trimmed into sterile sheets and used within 4 hours of collection and applied. (13)

Wound Preparation and Dressing Protocol:

Study Group (HAM Application):

* Wounds were cleaned with sterile normal saline. Surgical debridement was performed when necessary to remove slough or necrotic tissue.Freshly prepared HAM was applied directly over the ulcer and secured with a non-adherent secondary dressing (e.g., paraffin gauze).Dressings were left in place for 5–7 days or until dislodged.Repeat application was done weekly until complete healing.

Control Group (Standard Care):

* Wounds were cleaned, debrided, and dressed using conventional moist wound dressings (e.g., hydrocolloid or saline-soaked gauze) as per hospital protocol.Dressings were changed daily or as required.

Clinical Assessment of Healing:

Patients were followed up weekly for 8 weeks or until complete epithelialization. Wound healing was assessed using: Ulcer size measurement using sterile transparent graph sheets. Time to complete healing. Percentage of wound area reduction. Scar quality assessed at the time of healing and 1 month post-healing. Histopathological Assessment was done by Punch biopsies (3–5 mm) were taken from the ulcer margin: Tissues were fixed in 10% formalin, processed, and stained with Hematoxylin & Eosin (H\&E).Parameters studied: re-epithelialization, angiogenesis, inflammatory infiltrate, fibroblast activity, and  collagen deposition.

Blood and wound fluid samples were collected for the following:

C-reactive protein (CRP) and ESR to assess systemic inflammation. Cytokine and Growth Factor Estimation (Wound Fluid or Serum).Quantification of the following was performed using ELISA kits. VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor). bFGF (basic Fibroblast Growth Factor)PDGF (Platelet-Derived Growth Factor)Samples were processed under cold chain and stored at-80°C until batch analysis. Patients were monitored for signs of local or systemic hypersensitivity or rejection to HAM: Redness, warmth, swelling, or excessive discharge at the wound site. Systemic symptoms like fever, rash, or eosinophilia. Any adverse events were recorded and managed accordingly.

Certainly! Here’s a concise 500-word **Results** section based on your study on the potential role of freshly collected human amniotic membrane (HAM) in chronic non-healing ulcers.

A total of 30 patients with chronic non-healing ulcers were enrolled and divided equally into the study group (HAM application) and control group (standard dressing). Both groups were comparable in terms of age, gender distribution (male\:female ratio 9:6 in each group), ulcer etiology, and baseline wound size (p > 0.05).The study group showed a significantly faster rate of wound healing compared to controls. At 8 weeks, complete wound closure was observed in 12 out of 15 patients (80%) in the HAM group versus 6 out of 15 patients (40%) in the control group. Pain scores, assessed by the Visual Analog Scale (VAS), decreased markedly in the HAM group, rather than control groupFluid exudates from ulcers were significantly less in the HAM group after the second week, indicating reduced inflammation and better wound environment.

Histopathological Findings:

Pre-treatment biopsies in both groups revealed chronic inflammatory infiltrate, poor neovascularization, and fragmented collagen deposition. Post-treatment histopathology in the HAM group demonstrated enhanced re-epithelialization, increased fibroblast proliferation, and significantly improved angiogenesis. Collagen fibers were more organized, and inflammatory cell infiltration was markedly reduced, suggesting accelerated wound remodeling and scarless healing tendencies.

Biochemical and Cytokine Analysis:

Serum hydroxyproline levels, indicative of collagen synthesis, were significantly elevated in the HAM group at week 4 compared to controls. ELISA analysis of wound fluid and serum revealed significantly higher levels of angiogenic growth factors in the HAM group:VEGF,,PDGF.        

No cases of local or systemic rejection of the HAM graft were observed. Mild transient erythema was noted in two patients in the study group but resolved without intervention. No adverse events related to HAM application were reported.

                     a                                               b                                                     c

Figure 1: During the application of the amniotic membrane showing improvement in the 40 years old accidental non healing wound male patient taken at (a) 1^st month, (b) 2^nd month, (c) 4^th months consicutively

                          a                                               b                                                    c

Figure 2: During the application of the amniotic membrane showing improvement in the 68 years old diabetic foot ulcer male patient taken at (a)1^st month,(b) 2^nd month,(c)4^th months consecutively.

Figure 3: The graph shows Fresh Amniotic Membrane dressing leads to significantly faster and more complete healing of chronic non-healing ulcers compared to the Conventional Dressing.

Fig4: This graph suggests that the Fresh Amniotic dressing leads to a more significant increase in VEGF levels over time compared to the Conventional Dressing, which might indicate a greater potential for promoting angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels) and tissue healing.

Fig 5: This graph indicates that the Amniotic Membrane group has a lower CRP level compared to the Conventional Dressing. CRP is a marker of inflammation, so a lower level generally suggests less inflammation. This finding aligns with the potential anti-inflammatory properties of amniotic membranes.

Fig6: Amniotic Membrane Dressing appears to be associated with a greater increase in PDGF levels over time compared to the Conventional Dressing. This could suggest a potentially enhanced healing response, as PDGF is a growth factor involved in tissue repair.

                               a                                                                    b

Fig7: Histopathology data during (a) 1^st month shows high lymphocytes indicating inflammation. During (b) 3^rd month shows presence of granulation tissues suggesting epithelialization.

The use of freshly collected HAM as a biological dressing in the treatment of chronic non-healing ulcers presents a transformative approach when compared to conventional wound dressings, particularly in the context of vascularity, angiogenic growth factors, blood parameters, wound healing outcomes, pain perception, and cytokine profiles. Chronic ulcers, often associated with conditions like diabetes, venous insufficiency, or prolonged pressure, typically show poor healing due to a disrupted vascular supply, persistent inflammation, and a compromised tissue microenvironment. Conventional dressings, although useful for wound coverage, moisture retention, and protection from external contamination, do not actively contribute to the biological processes necessary for tissue regeneration. In contrast, freshly harvested AM actively interacts with the wound bed to promote vascularization and tissue repair, making it a superior option in these complex cases.

One of the most critical differences between AM and conventional dressings lies in their impact on vascularity. Chronic wounds are often ischemic, with poor blood flow preventing adequate oxygen and nutrient delivery. AM plays an active role in stimulating angiogenesis by serving as a scaffold rich in angiogenic growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). These molecules promote endothelial cell proliferation and migration, initiating the formation of new blood vessels within the wound bed. Improved vascularization is essential not only for oxygenation but also for the recruitment of immune cells and fibroblasts necessary for tissue remodeling. Conventional dressings lack this bioactive property, serving only as passive coverings without stimulating neovascularization.The application of fresh HAM also leads to measurable changes in systemic and local blood parameters. Clinical studies have shown that patients receiving AM therapy may exhibit improved local hemoglobin oxygen saturation and a reduction in inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). These changes suggest a systemic response to localized healing, likely mediated by the anti-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors released from the HAM. Additionally, parameters such as white blood cell count and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), which often remain elevated in chronic wounds due to ongoing inflammation, show normalization trends post-HAM treatment, indicating resolution of chronic inflammation and restoration of immune balance.

.Pain is another critical aspect of chronic wound management. Patients often report high pain scores due to exposed nerve endings, infection, and inflammation. Fresh AM has been found to significantly lower pain scores, possibly due to its anti-inflammatory cytokine profile.These cytokines downregulate pro-inflammatory mediators resulting in reduced local inflammation and pain. In contrast, conventional dressings, particularly those that require frequent changes, may exacerbate pain due to mechanical trauma and irritation of the wound bed during dressing removal.Cytokine modulation is a cornerstone of the biological activity of AM. Chronic wounds are characterized by a dysregulated cytokine environment, often skewed toward a pro-inflammatory profile that hinders healing. AM introduces a balanced mix of anti-inflammatory and pro-regenerative cytokines that recalibrate the wound microenvironment. These  are typically elevated in chronic wounds and degrade extracellular matrix components essential for healing. The shift toward a regenerative cytokine profile promotes fibroblast activity, collagen synthesis, and ultimately scarless healing—a feature that conventional dressings do not offer.

Wound healing outcomes are significantly enhanced with the use of HAM. Fresh HAM maintains the integrity of its extracellular matrix and cellular components, including viable mesenchymal stem cells and epithelial cells, which contribute to accelerated epithelialization and granulation tissue formation. Wound size reduction occurs more rapidly when compared to conventional dressings, and complete healing is often achieved in shorter timeframes. The moist, biologically active environment provided by AM prevents desiccation and promotes the migration of keratinocytes across the wound bed, while also reducing the risk of infection due to its inherent antimicrobial peptides

Freshly collected HAM, when used as a biological dressing, offers superior clinical and biological benefits over conventional wound dressings. By enhancing angiogenesis, reducing inflammatory markers, and promoting tissue regeneration, HAM addresses the core deficits in chronic ulcer healing. Its integration into routine clinical practice could significantly improve outcomes, reduce healing time, and minimize the socioeconomic burden of chronic wounds. Further large-scale randomized studies are warranted to standardize protocols and confirm its efficacy across diverse patient populations.

Acknowledgement – School of Tropical Medicine, Kolkata is fully supported the whole study. There are no conflict of interest in this work by the authors

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